Section two: World map pointing (countries and capital)

Europe

1801–1805

The First Barbary War ( Tripolitanian War/ the Barbary Coast War) was the first of two Barbary Wars, in which the United States and Sweden fought against the four North African states Tripoli, Algiers, and Tunis and Sultanate of Morocco ("Barbary States"). Pirates from the Barbary States were seizing American merchant ships and holding the crews for ransom, demanding the U.S. pay tribute to the Barbary rulers. This led to the war which ended with peace treaty.

1271

Kublai established the Yuan dynasty which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, Korea as d the role of Emperor of China. Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui and a grandson of Genghis Khan., By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to conquer all of China.

1)       A Star shines due to fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core, releasing energy in the form of gamma rays which loose some energy and become photon when they reach the surface (after 100000 years)

2)       Stars are maintaining a balance between gravity trying to collapse them and their internal heat trying to swell them. Averaged sized star like the Sun lasts for 10 billion years and ends by expanding briefly and then blowing away its outer layers leaving behind the gravitationally compressed core. Under pressure and temperature Hydrogen fusion makes helium, helium fusion makes carbon. Lower-mass stars stop at carbon. (hydrogen less in 2 billion years)

3)       But more massive stars die (within 100 million years ) with a huge bang. If the star has more than about 8 times the Sun’s mass, it can create temperatures in its core in excess of 500 million degrees Celsius, and then carbon will fuse into neon, magnesium, and some sodium to oxygen to silicon (2-3 billion degrees) can fuse to iron. When iron fuses it actually sucks up energy instead of creating it which shrinking, compressing the core, heating it up even more. The gravity of the core is so strong that the outer parts crash down on the inner part very fast, the core collapses gravity becomes extremely intense

a.    Neutron star

i.      Death of (before collapse had a total of between 10 and 29 solar masses.) 1.4 and 2.8 times the Sun’s mass star. Explosion occurs and a ball is left behind composed almost entirely of neutrons.

ii.     Milliseconds ago it was fusing silicon into iron, but now it’s collapsed under its own immensely powerful gravity.

iii.    The collapse takes a fraction of a second, but a lot happens in that fraction of a second

iv.    If the core has a mass more than about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun electron degeneracy (No two electrons can occupy identical states, even under the pressure of a collapsing star) fails to stop the collapse

v.     Under these huge pressures Protons, electrons, and other subatomic particles merge to form neutrons

vi.    Neutrons resist being squeezed too tightly together (neutron degeneracy)  

vii.   If the core is less than about 2.8 times the Sun’s mass, the collapse stops generating a huge shock wave, which, along with a flood of energetic subatomic particles called neutrinos, blasts outwards, blowing up the star

viii.  Its mass would be more than Sun, with volume of sphere 20 km across

ix.    The first neutron star was detected in 1965

x.     Pulsars are neutron stars flashing (twin beams of energy away from the star) in brightness as they spin coupled with their incredibly strong magnetic fields

b.    White dwarf

i.      Death of star 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, it becomes a white dwarf which a very hot ball of super-compressed matter about the size of the Earth (composed of carbon and oxygen)

ii.     nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B, at 8.6 light years

iii.    White dwarfs are the final evolutionary state of stars whose mass is about 10 solar masses. ( 97% of stars in the Milky Way.)

iv.    A black dwarf is a hypothetical stellar residue of a white dwarf after it has cooled sufficiently that it does not emit heat or light. The time required for a white dwarf to become black dwarf is longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years) so no black dwarfs exist in the universe now

c.     Black hole

i.      When mass is MORE than 2.8 times the Sun’s, the gravity of the core can actually overcome the tremendous resistance of the neutrons and continue its collapse.

ii.     There is literally nothing in the Universe that can stop the collapse.

iii.    A neutron star, have an escape velocity of 150,000 km/sec – that’s half the speed of light (compared to The Sun with an escape velocity of over 600 km/sec. )

iv.    It’s like an infinitely deep HOLE, and no light can come out, so it’s BLACK.

v.     That region of space, that surface around the black hole where the escape velocity is the speed of light, is called the EVENT HORIZON as any event that happens inside can’t be known

vi.    Black holes also come in different sizes. The kind I’ve been talking about has a minimum mass of about 3 times the Sun’s, and might get as high as a dozen or more times the Sun’s mass, if the parent star was big enough. We call these stellar-mass black holes. If it happens to gobble down more matter, it gets more massive, and the event horizon grows as well.

vii.   The black hole gets bigger. In the 1970s it was first proposed that black holes could form in the centers of galaxies, and  the first one was discovered, in the center of Milky Way whose mass is 4.3 million times the mass of the Sun

d.    Brown dwarf

i.      A planetary body having mass less than about 0.075 times the Sun’s mass, roughly 75 times the mass of Jupiter, it would fail to fuse hydrogen to helium but it would radiate its heat away.

ii.     Very low mass stars are red (the most common type of star in the Milky Way), which emit light in the infrared e.g. Proxima Centauri

QUESTIONS

1.       According to the UN,who is the most widely translated author in the world?

2.       Which philosopher is best known for his statement cogito ergo sum ( I think therefore I am?

3.       Philosophy comes from the Greek philosophia, meaning what?

4.       Metaphysics is the study of what?

5.       What is the pen name of Eric Arthur Blair?

ANSWERS

1. Agatha Christie
2. René Descartes
3. Love Of Wisdom
4. Existence
5. George Orwell

Section two: World map pointing (countries and capital)

Europe

1607

First successful English settlements were at Jamestown on May 13, 1607, by about 100 men and boys and women who came to Virginia from London, England.

2560 BCE 

Ancient Egyptians Build the Great Pyramid of Giza for Pharaoh Khufu

1754 BC

Babylonian King Hammurabi Issues the Code of Hammurabi, One of the Earliest Legal Codes 

1. Civilizations originated along both the Yellow River (Huang Ho) (mainly) and Yangtze River.    
2. China was the first modern state having a centralized government
3. The Chinese were also among the first people to write history. (e.g. Confucias’s Shujing, or Classic of History)
4. Chinese History is conveniently divided into periods called Dynasties. The first Chinese dynasty was the Shang (the Xia dynasty was fictional) 
5. Shang reign overthrown by the Zhou (1046–256 BC). They introduced Mandate of to justify their reign. China didn’t even have an idea of “Heaven” and worshipped a “high god” called Shangdi. Using Mandate of Heaven, they explained that the Shang were able to conquer the Xia only because the Xia kings had lost the Mandate of Heaven
6. The country crumbled into political chaos called the Warring States period, in which states warred over periods. During this period Confucius (551–479 BC), a minor official developed a philosophical and political system. He argued that by following the model of the sage emperors the Chinese emperor could bring order to China. If all men strive to be Junzi the “superior man” the society as a whole will run smoothly. This idea applies especially to the emperor, who is like the father to the whole country as he emphasized that the most important relation was the relation between father and son.  He is also a traditional deity in Daoism. 
7. The period also saw Laozi/ Lao-Tze an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He wrote Tao Te Ching and was the founder of philosophical Taoism. Sun Tzu a Chinese general, military strategist, writer, and philosopher and the author of The Art of War was also from this period.
8. This warring period ended when the Qin emperor (221 BC) was able to extend his power over most of the warring states. The Qin dynasty was one of the most important dynasties in Chinese history It re-unifed China under a single emperor for the first time in 500 years period and it gave the place its name, “Chin- uh.” 
9. Qin was replaced by the Han (206 BC–220 AD) a very important dynasty in China’s history. (period of stability and prosperity (golden age)) The name "Han" is used as the name of the Chinese people The country fell again into political chaos –there was no dynasty that ruled over all of China 
10. Country came under the Sui for short time, who were followed by the Tang. 
11. Most prosperous Chang'an (modern Xi'an). The capital was the largest city in the world at that time. The period saw Taizong, one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history and Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who travelled to India. Chinese were the first in the world to use paper money, during the Tang Dynasty. 
12. Tang dynasty was replaced, after a short period of no dynasty
13. Then came the Song, who saw a huge growth in China’s commerce that was still not enough to prevent them from being conquered by the Mongol Yuan in 1271, under the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan. This period saw the construction of grand canal and foundation of Beijing as the capital of the first foreign-led dynasty in China.
14. As this dynasty became unpopular, there was a rise of the Ming (1368–1644), which was the dynasty that built the Great Wall
15. They fell to the Manchus, who founded a dynasty that was called the Qing AD (1644–1912), which was the last dynasty
16. In 1912 there was a Xinhai Revolution unsatisfied by the Qing's opposition to reform young officials inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen (the first provisional president of the Republic of China) overthrew Qing and created republic

QUESTIONS

1. What is the most common isotope of hydrogen?
2. What is the most abundant protein in the human body?
3. How much salt (NaCl) is in the average adult human body?
4. Who discovered Radium?
5. Who first discovered cells?

ANSWERS

1. Protium
2. Collagen
3. 250 grams
4. Marie Curie.
5. Robert Hooke

1949
The North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty) signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949  is the treaty that forms the legal basis of, and is implemented by, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The treaty’s mutual self-defense clause was never invoked during the Cold War. It was invoked for the first time in 2001 after 11 September 2001.

Section iv: Historical event: world

1215
Magna Carta Libertatum (Great Charter) a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, admission to swift justice, and limitations on payments to the empire's Crown which was to be executed by council of 25 barons. Both sides breached their commitments, and the charter was invalided by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War.

Section v: Lens and its uses

Section vi: quiz

1789

April 30, 1789 George Washington becomes the first president

1791-1794

The Whiskey Rebellion was a tax protest in the United States under the president George Washington. The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government to generate revenue for the war debt incurred during the Revolutionary War. The events led to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway. In the early 1800s, whiskey tax was revoked during the administration of Jefferson.

Section cuatro: historical events of the world

Section cinco: Sinusitis and Epilepsy

Sinusitis

8) c) Chronic Sinsusitis, which lasts more than 12
 d) Recurrent Sinsusitis, with several attacks within a year 

9) Symptoms Huge pain which may be localized to the sinus or generalized pain which may present as headache and lots of mucus will be generated, Patients can also have fever 

10) Treatment: X rays / CT scan can be done to visualize sinuses. Nasal decongestants to shrink swollen nasal passages, mucolytics medications to clear mucus, water(hydrated helps in drainage of mucus). pain killers to help relieve the pain; Antibiotics for Acute Bacterial sinusitis; 

Epilepsy

1) It is called also Fits. It is a neurological illness. 

2) Epilepsy is seizure disorder. These seizures take place repeatedly and arbitrarily .

3) During a seizure clusters of neurons (specialized cells transmitting nerve impulses) in the brain become temporarily impaired or are active at the same time)

4) Demographics: Common in urban and rural area and among all ages 

5) Frequency: varying from once a week to once a year

6) Duration: one / two minutes to hours

7) Neurons send a message using electrical signals relayed from neuron to neuron called firing. The communication i.e. information interchange among separate parts of the brain via electric currents. When there is a short circuit at some point then that particular part of the brain or sometimes the whole brain stops working temporarily.

8) Majority of the people get back to their normal self within fifteen to thirty minutes after a seizure as if nothing happened or at least no permanent damage has occurred to the brain

9) Diagnosis: Brain imaging techniques like MRI, CT scans and EEG (electroencephalogram) for detecting electrical activity in the brain and looking for anatomical abnormalities like brain tumors or abnormal blood vessels that could be causing the seizures 

10) Treatment: completely treatable using anti-epileptic drugs/ anticonvulsants and sometimes epilepsy surgery is required for anatomical abnormalities like brain tumors causing the seizures 

12) ketogenic diet forcing body to burn fat instead of carbohydrates

Section sies: quiz

1916-1930

First Great Migration. was the movement of six million African-Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1916 and 1940. In the early 1900s, more than 90 percent of the African-American population lived in the American South and in 1900, only one-fifth of African-Americans living in the South were living in urban areas.

1980-1988

On 22 September 1980 Iraq invaded Iran to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state, resulting in stalemate with both sides claim victory Iraq failing to annex Iranian territories and Iran failing to topple Saddam Hussein

The periodic table was created by Dmitry Mendeleyev (1869) at University of St. Petersburg.

Scientists have discovered 94 naturally occurring. Majority (over three-fourths) of the natural elements are metals. The periodic table is the set of the elements written in a fashion pointing out the similarities in the properties of the elements.

The chemical properties of an element are dependent on the number of electrons in its outer shell. In the periodic table elements of the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell and have similar properties. The properties change gradually along periods (rows) in the table.  The major groups are 

1) Metals: Group 1A (alkali metals), 2A (alkaline earth metals), and 3-12. (good conductors of heat, malleable, ductile and shiny look). 

2) Non-metals: (poor conductors of heat, non-malleable or ductile and not shiny (Nitrogen, Oxygen)

3) Halogens: Group 7A/17 (reactive nonmetals) (fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I))

4) Noble gases: Group 8A / 18th (colorless and unreactive) (Helium, Neon, Argon)

Most reactive metal francium (man-made)

Most reactive metal is cesium (natural)

Least reactive element Helium 

Most electronegative fluorine 

Least electronegative francium

Lowest density Hydrogen 

Highest density Osmium.

Most common element Hydrogen

Most abundant element on earth’s crust oxygen (followed by silicon)

Most abundant element by weight iron

Rarest or scarcest element is astatine 

Lightest element Hydrogen 

Heaviest natural element is the metal uranium

Most flammable element hydrogen

Most flammable chemical chlorine trifluoride, ClF3.

Element with the highest melting point Calcium

Element with the lowest melting point Helium 

Element with the highest sublimation point Calcium

Most expensive natural element Lutetium

most conductive silver

least conductive Sulphur

highest measured radioactivity comes from the element polonium.

Most corrosive-resistant iridium

Copper is also the only metal that is naturally antibacterial

QUESTIONS

1. How far is the moon from the Earth?
2. How do we better know Theodor Seuss Geisel?
3. According to Egyptian mythology, a criosphinx is a figure that has the body of a lion and the head of a what?
4. Which animal has the biggest brain?
5. How long does Haley’s comet take how long to orbit the sun?

ANSWERS